explain the actual human biological variation and human racial classification

a major division of the human species based on particular physical characteristics; the biological origin of a group of people, or ancestry; the fact or condition of belonging to a racial division or group, or the social qualities associated with this; a group of … New York: Free Press. 2021 . ." To sort a species into sub-species, it is necessary to have biological variation AND a way to group that variation. Colloquial term for the two views of human development, one emphasizing heredity and the other environment. New York: Columbia University Press. Retrieved April 10, 2021 from Encyclopedia.com: https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/human-biological-variation. “The Heritability Hang-Up.” Science 190: 1163–1168. 1994. These and subsequent genetic studies have demonstrated that the biological features that distinguish racial groups are subject to environmental influence and are of recent origin. In other words, "racial" groups are far from being homogenous. Twin and family studies have shown that shared environmental factors have an important effect on educational attainment (see Silventoinen et al. Without the proper environment, however, this trait may not be expressed. In a second argument against the biological reality of race, theorists claim that even if non-human subspecies exist, there are no human ones; hence there are no races (Lewontin, Rose, Kamin 1984). Skin color is the most readily visible signifier of race, and as such is the characteristic upon which most racial classifications are based. Binet warned that the IQ test could not properly be used to measure intelligence “because intellectual qualities are not superposable, and therefore cannot be measured as linear surfaces are measured” (Binet and Simon 1916, p. 206). 2001. "Human Biological Variation “Race and Three Models of Human Origin.” American Anthropologist 97 (2): 231–242. Skin colour clines (gradations) in indigenous populations worldwide correlate with latitude and amounts of sunlight. In other words, there is no concordance between blood type and skin color. 2002. Such people inhabit the Sahara and the desiccated areas of the Sudan in Africa. Genetics of the Evolutionary Process. In any given habitat, natural forces operate on all of the living forms, including human groups. The changes were both physiological and genetic; that is, there were systemic changes in individuals and long-range genetic changes as a result of natural selection and, possibly, mutations. _____. In the laboratory, race can be used to investigate disease-causing genes within and between populations, and, more generally to classify groups in studies of human … While human racial groups are not biological categories, “race” as a social reality — as a way of structuring societies and experiencing the world — is very real. Because some phenotypes, such as skin color, facial features, and hair form, differ between native inhabitants of different regions of the world, biological anthropologists and geneticists introduced the idea of geographical races (see Dobzhansky 1970, Brues 1977, Garn 1961, Mayr 2002). Scientists no longer believe there is a biological basis to distinguish racial groups, rather, race is a social, cultural, and/or political construct wherein racial segregation has real consequences on health and health disparities. This concept changed with the pioneering studies of Franz Boas (1858–1942). Race Is a Four-Letter Word: The Genesis of the Concept. For this reason, professionals with a genetics education have a broad range of career opport…, Genetic counseling is the process in which a specially trained professional communicates with a person, couple, or family about the occurrence, or ch…, Nature-Nurture Controversy Livingstone, Frank B. “Population Genetic Structure of Variable Drug Response.” Nature Genetics 29 (3): 265–269. An illustration of the dangers of misusing information on the intelligence quotient (IQ) and heritability is found in studies of IQ and race. 1997. Available from http://www.physanth.org/positions/race.html. According to these authors, “geographical races” refer to an aggregate of phenotypically similar populations of a species inhabiting a geographic subdivision. Binet, Alfred, and Théodore Simon. For these reasons, among biological anthropologists at least, the biological concept of race for describing biological diversity has largely been abandoned. Long, linear body builds seems to be highly correlated with hot, dry climates. . Recent genetic studies of DNA polymorphisms have suggested that human genetic diversity is organized in continental or geographical areas (see Serre and Pääbo 2004; Feldman, Lewontin, and King 2004). Mayr, Ernst. The sickle cell trait (hemoglobin S), for example, is found chiefly in those regions of the tropical world where malaria is endemic. There are some people with outstanding memories, some with mathematical skills, some with musical talents, some good at seeing analogies, some good at synthesizing information, and some with manual and mechanical expertise. However, this difference is more a reflection of the different educational experiences of black and white Americans. To understand why, we must keep in mind that racial labels are distinct, discrete categories while human physical and biological variations (such as skin color, hair color and texture, eye color, height, nose shape, and distribution of blood types) are continuous rather than discrete. In the early 1900s, head shape was considered an innate “racial” trait that was inherited, with little environmental influence at work. Therefore, a diagnostic approach toward sickle-cell disease must take into account the individual’s geographical ancestry. BIBLIOGRAPHY This does not mean that a person’s genetic makeup is not a significant factor in individual intelligence in particular areas. Genetic studies demonstrate that about 85.4 percent of all the variation in the human species can be attributed to variation within populations and that there is only a 6.3 percent difference between “races,” with less than half of this value accounted for by known racial groupings (see Lewontin 1972; Barbujani, Magani, Minch, et al. First, consider two hypothetical groups of eight-year-old children: one from a middle class U.S. school and one from a poor rural area in Guatemala. These and subsequent genetic studies have demonstrated that the biological … In fact, he expressly condemns the idea. Encyclopedia.com gives you the ability to cite reference entries and articles according to common styles from the Modern Language Association (MLA), The Chicago Manual of Style, and the American Psychological Association (APA). Dickens, W. T., and J. R. Flynn. “Genetic Aspects of Intelligence.” Annual Review of Genetics 9: 387–405. In other words, identification of trait frequencies and statistical partitions of genetic variation do not provide accurate information to justify claims for the existence of “races.”. Cite this article Pick a style below, and copy the text for your bibliography. Compared to “race,” those factors not only better describe human variation, they invoke evolutionary processes to explain variation. “The Rate of Mutation of Human Genes.” Proceedings of the Eighth International Congress of Genetics: 267–273. Most online reference entries and articles do not have page numbers. The IQ test was developed by the French psychologist Alfred Binet in the 1910s to identify children’s reading readiness. Likewise, the ABO blood type frequencies for natives of Taiwan and Greece are very similar (0 = 45.2 %, A = 32.6 %, B =18.0 %, AB = 3.4 %), but on the basis of geography and physical appearance these two populations clearly belong to different categories. Then, copy and paste the text into your bibliography or works cited list. In other words, race is a consequence of social history and any variation is therefore transitory. As the human species exhibits sexual dimorphism, many traits show significant variation not just between … The distribution of skin colour variations of indigenous populations before colonization by Europeans. Feldman, Marcus W., and Richard C. Lewontin. “Apportionment of Racial Diversity: A Review.” Evolutionary Anthropology 10 (1): 34–40. IQ AND RACE: MISUSE OF SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION, THE USE OF GEOGRAPHIC AREA AND RACE IN BIOMEDICAL RESEARCH. The map, compiled by the author of this article, Audrey Smedley, is a reconstruction of populations based on a number of sources. People adapted to cold climates have acquired genetic traits that provide them extra layers of body fat, which accounts for the epicanthic fold over their eyes. These findings together indicate that the lower IQ scores associated with black samples is more a function of educational experiences than of genetic determinants. The Development of Intelligence in Children (the Binet-Simon Scale). Shared environmental factors such as education have a greater impact on intelligence during childhood than in adulthood. 2003. 2004. 1995. "Human Biological Variation Within the tropics, skin colours vary from light tan to very dark brown or black, both among populations and among individuals within groups. The problem of using racial classification in biomedical research has become important because of its ethical consequences in society. “The Biology of Race and the Concept of Equality.” Daedalus 131 (1): 89. Current evidence indicates that variability in the genotypic and phenotypic expression of genetic traits is affected by natural selection, migration, and genetic drift. (For more on this history, see section on Human Nature & Anthropology. (Alleles are alternative versions of a particular gene.) New York: Oxford University Press. Based on this trait, they could all be assigned to an “African race.” However, with reference to frequencies of the B blood group and Rh blood genes C and E, the Australian aborigines are very different from the East African, West African, and Indian populations. This genetic unity means, for instance, that any local group contains, on average, 85 percent of the genetic variation that exists in the entire human species. students select a college major or minor by carefully considering their personal interests Hence, for the Guatemalan rural children, there are still five eggs. Early racial classification systems for humans used specific phenotypic characteristics that occurred in higher frequencies in certain populations. The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life. (A) The old concept of the “five races:” African, Asian, European, Native American, and Oceanian. According to this view, variation between the races is large, and thus, the each race is a separate category. The ancient Greeks, on the other hand, referred to all Africans as “Ethiopians.” A major tenet of the biological concept of race is that the traits that identify a given race are unchangeable and have been fixed since the beginning of humankind. It is evident that cultural environment is an important contributor to any measures of IQ. Brown, Ryan A., and George J. Armelagos. “Protection Afforded by Sickle-Cell Trait against Subtertian Malarial Infection.” British Medical Journal 1: 290–294. In the early 1900s, head shape was considered an innate “racial” trait that was inherited, with little environmental influence at work. Encyclopedias almanacs transcripts and maps. Indeed, his conclusions that biological human races (or subspecies, for these purposes) do exist, and conform generally to ancestral continental regions, appear remarkably m… To some people, “race” is a four-letter word associated with negative connotations, while for others it refers to actual biologically inherited traits. Variation in Populations; Footnotes; The growing ability to detect and measure human genetic variation allows us to study similarities and differences among individuals. Most important from the standpoint of the biological meaning of these racial categories, however, most human genetic variation does not show such "race" clustering. Their blood vessels either constrict the flow to extremities to keep the inner body warm while their surface skin may be very cold (vasoconstriction) or dilate to increase the blood flow to the hands, feet, and head to warm the outer surfaces (vasodilation). 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